A traditional explanation for the success of the Bolshevik coup in November 1917 is the polarization of Russian society during the last decades of the empire. As Russia underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization--with the growth of a capital-controlling middle class and the proliferation of poor industrial workers--the traditional agrarian economy of Russia and the organization of its society into sosloviia (estates) was breaking down and becoming replaced with an unstable capitalist system. For some scholars, the classical Marxist paradigm of a radicalized proletariat seizing power from an oppressive bourgeoisie has best explained the Russian Revolution. According to this argument, no social conciliation was possible, and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 was inevitable...

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Russia is known for its long and bitter winters. The country's hostile climate helped stop various invaders during its history, including the large armies of Napoleon in 1812 and of Adolf Hitler in 1941 and 1942. In the Moscow region, snow covers the ground for about five months each year. In the northernmost part of Russia, snow abounds for eight to nine months a year. The small percentage of Russia's land that is fit for agriculture has a short growing season and insufficient rainfall. Half the land has permafrost beneath the surface. Most of the coastal waters, lakes, and rivers freeze for much of the year...

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Russia's many large rivers have served as important means of communication and commerce. The construction of canals further improved these activities...

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Many scientists divide Russia into four zones according to soil conditions and plant life, which are based mainly on climate. The zones form broad belts across Russia, and no sharp transitions separate them. From north to south, the zones are (1) the tundra, (2) the forest zone, (3) the steppes, and (4) the semidesert and mountainous zone...

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The arts in Russia date back to the earliest days of the country. But Russian artists did not produce internationally recognized works in many fields until the early 1800's. Throughout much of the 1800's and the early 1900's, Russia became an international leader in classical music, ballet, drama, and literature. Several Russian painters and sculptors also gained worldwide fame...

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The government of the Soviet Union controlled many aspects of life in the country. It exerted great influence over religion, education, and the arts. The independence of Russia following the breakup of the Soviet Union brought greater freedom and triggered many other changes in the lives of the people...

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The people of Russia are distributed unevenly throughout the country. The vast majority live in the western - or European - part of Russia. The more rugged and remote areas to the east are sparsely inhabited...

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The former Soviet government had a political police system called the Committee on State Security, known as the KGB. The KGB could interfere with and influence the legal system, and major violations of human rights took place. The KGB no longer exists in Russia. Today, Russia has two security agencies. The Federal Counterintelligence Service handles internal security, and the Foreign Intelligence Service collects information from other countries. In addition, Russia's 1993 constitution protects the civil rights of all Russian citizens. The prosecutor-general, who serves as the chief legal officer of Russia, is nominated by the president and is approved by the Federation Council.

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The Communist Party was the only legal political party in the Soviet Union until March 1990. At that time, the Soviet Constitution - which gave the Communist Party its broad powers - was amended. A loose coalition of political parties with a democratic platform, known as the Democratic Russia Movement, began to play a key role in the reform movement. The Democratic Russia Movement secured Yeltsin's victory in a free presidential election held in June 1991. The collapse of the Communist Party and the Soviet Union caused the Democratic Russia Movement to break apart. Groups that had opposed the Soviet Communist Party developed into separate political parties.

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In 1992 - shortly after the Soviet Union broke up - Russia established a transitional (temporary) government headed by Boris N. Yeltsin. Yeltsin had been elected president of the R.S.F.S.R. in 1991. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin continued to serve as president of Russia. In December 1993, Russia adopted a new constitution that established a permanent government.

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