In the post-Soviet period, the Central Asian countries faced a number of problems, including in the area of formulating national interests and ensuring their own security, which was previously supported solely by the efforts of a single Soviet state. The political elites ' understanding of their own national interests and the vision of ways to protect them did not always exist in line with the idea of a regional community and common regional interests. This is due both to the multitude of conflict episodes in the relations between the Central Asian states and to the rather low level of intraregional trade and economic ties.

However, in our opinion, there are a number of important reasons that objectively transform these post-Soviet countries into a single regional complex.

Among the factors that objectively unite the five former Soviet republics, the historical and cultural community of the Central Asian countries1, as well as the "sharp structural imbalance of their resource base", are singled out. According to S. Panarin, " three features are inherent in the resource base of all states in the region: 1) an absolute shortage of investment capital formed on the basis of internal savings; 2) an excess of unskilled labor resources formed by the titular population; and 3) an acute shortage of directly life-supporting resources in most of the region's territory"². All this indicates that a number of economic, social, political and environmental problems are common for the region.

It should be noted that some threats to the security of Central Asia are directly related to many countries in Europe and Asia. In particular, according to the UN, up to 4,500 tons of raw heroin and opium are exported annually from Afghanistan through Central Asia to Russia and then to Western Europe3.

The Republic of Kazakhstan (ROK), like other CIS countries, has faced the fundamental task of building a modern state and conducting a domestic and foreign policy that is adequate to modern requirements since gaining independence. The issues of ensuring national security have become one of the most important and topical for the young sovereign Kazakhstan. The decline in the former Soviet-era level of stability in the region and in the world as a whole has put on the agenda the most urgent task - the search for new, more effective approaches to ensuring national security.

Among the Central Asian countries, Kazakhstan plays a special role, geographically occupying a large part of the region and claiming to be a regional leader in terms of its economic and political potential. Located at the junction of Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is the geographical center of the European-Asian subcontinent. The republic covers an area of more than 2.7 million square kilometers and stretches east from the Caspian Sea and the Volga plains to the Altai Mountains, from the foothills of the Tien Shan in the south and southeast to the West Siberian Lowlands in the north. Kazakhstan ranks ninth in the world in terms of land area after Russia, Canada, China, the United States, Brazil, Australia, India and Argentina (followed by Sudan, the largest African country in terms of land area (more than 2.5 million square kilometers). Kazakhstan borders Russia to the east, north and northwest, with a land and sea border of approximately 7,000 km, the Central Asian states of Uzbekistan (2,300 km), Kyrgyzstan (980 km) and Turkmenistan (380 km) to the south, and China (1,460 km) to the southeast.⁷.

The physical and geographical concept of "Central Asia" (hereinafter - CA) includes mainland areas of internal flow, which, along with the four states of the former Soviet Central Asia and Kazakhstan, cover Mongolia, as well as some territories of the Russian Federation, China, the far north of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, etc. But Central Asia is not just a geographical concept. First of all, it is a large historical and cultural space with a common centuries-old history for its peoples, developing as a kind of civilizational community. In the past, Central Asia justified its name not only by its geographical location, but also by its place in the world trade system. Aidre Gunder Frank even suggested that the peoples of the region have long played a central role in world history.⁴ Some researchers see Central Asia as a single international political region capable of acting as a single actor under certain conditions.⁵ At the same time, the borders and contours of the international political region of Central Asia at the present stage are somewhat different from the borders of the geographical region. The republics that were included in the "Kazakhstan and Central Asia" group during the Soviet period are now usually referred to as Central Asian states. The term "post-Soviet Central Asia" is often applied to this region, since it has a different content than the formulas of Central ("Greater"), Central, Inner Asia, Western Turkestan, etc. ⁶ In this paper, the term "Central Asia" refers to the space formed by five post-Soviet countries-Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

Astana attaches primary importance to cooperation with Russia in strengthening national and regional security and countering regional threats. The dynamic development of cooperation between Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation both at the bilateral level and within regional organizations and interstate structures - the EurAsEC (Eurasian Economic Community), the CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Organization), and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) -is characterized by stability and efficiency.

INTERACTION OF DEFENSE DEPARTMENTS

Given the large share of the military component in cooperation between the two countries, a significant part of the implemented activities of Kazakhstan and Russia in the field of regional security falls on the interaction of military departments.

With the direct assistance of the Russian Federation in the period from 1992 to 1999, purposeful work was carried out on the creation of the Armed Forces of Kazakhstan. During this period, a unified national system of military education appeared, within which the Academy of the Armed Forces operates, an adjunct school for training scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel, a higher military aviation school, and a cadet corps ⁸ were formed and functioned.

Starting from September 2002, according to the agreement reached, Kazakh military personnel were trained at Russian universities on preferential terms, and starting from 2005-on a gratuitous basis (training and maintenance at the expense of the Russian Federation).⁹. In 2006, about 800 Kazakhstani military personnel were trained in 43 Russian military universities, which is about a third of the military personnel of the CIS countries studying in Russia. To date, more than 2,000 Kazakhstani officers have already been trained. About 400 officers received higher military education. High-quality education is provided to specialists in engineering, artillery, and aviation ¹⁰. In addition, the Kazakh leadership considers Russia as the main partner in the field of modernization of its own weapons. In April 2007, Kazakh Defense Minister D. Akhmetov, during talks with his Russian counterpart A. Serdyukov, noted that Kazakhstan is currently " modernizing its armed forces and therefore needs to supply modern military equipment. Therefore, the Kazakh side intends to purchase the latest weapons and equipment from Russia. " ¹¹ One of the outcomes of the CSTO summit in Dushanbe in October 2007 was an agreement in principle between Russia and its partners in the organization, including the Republic of Kazakhstan, on the supply of weapons and special equipment at domestic Russian prices.¹²

After the invasion of the territory of Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan by Islamic extremists in 1999 and 2000, the attention of the Kazakh leadership to the problems of the country's defense potential increased. For the first time, the 2001 budget included a fixed minimum of military expenditures, which is equal to 1% of GDP. The implementation of the program of military reform and military construction, including the formation of military districts, has begun. In addition, new mobile troops are being created in the republic, taking into account the specifics of recent conflicts. During the exercises held in the Southern and Eastern Military Districts, methods and methods of conducting combat operations in mountainous terrain are being worked out ¹³. Due to the increase in the potential of military threats in Central Asia in the XXI century, cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia in the field of joint exercises and maneuvers has noticeably intensified. The Southern Shield of the Commonwealth maneuvers and military exercises of the CSTO member states are held on a regular basis. In particular, in August 2004, the first stage of CSTO military exercises was held in Kazakhstan.¹⁴

In general, in recent years, cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia in the military field has been one of the most successful areas in the system of regional security being built.

FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM AND EXTREMISM

Interstate cooperation on countering terrorism and extremism is developing both on a bilateral Kazakh-Russian basis and within the framework of structures whose activities are aimed at ensuring collective security, primarily the CSTO and the SCO.

In August 2005, the anti-terrorist structures of the National Security Committee (NSC) of Kazakhstan and the FSB of Russia were involved in the territory of Kazakhstan near the Caspian city of Aktau during the exercises "Caspian-Anti-Terror-2005"^.15

A regular working meeting of representatives of the Department of the National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the Northern Kazakhstan region and the Department of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation for the Kurgan region was held in the Russian city of Kurgan in May 2006 within the framework of the agreement on cooperation between neighboring regions. The participants of the meeting analyzed the implementation of agreements in the field of combating terrorism, extremism, organized crime, drug trafficking, smuggling, illegal migration, and corruption at the border16.

Within the framework of the CSTO, in early April 2003, exercises were held in Tajikistan (including with the participation of Russian and Kazakh military personnel), during which a plan was developed to counter the possible penetration of gangs into the territory of Tajikistan. ¹⁷ From June 9 to 11, 2003, the CIS Anti-Terrorist Center conducted joint tactical special exercises " Azov-Antiterror-2003" of antiterror units for practicing actions to free hostages and neutralize terrorists at sea transport facilities. The exercise was attended by representatives of the special services of Russia, Kazakhstan and Ukraine ¹⁸.

Within the framework of the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), established in 2002 at the SCO summit in St. Petersburg, a common data bank on terrorist organizations has been created. The main efforts are focused on

to develop international contacts and relations, to improve the legal support for joint efforts. A secure system of communication between the SCO member states is being developed to ensure the operational and secret activities of the special services, and the issue of unified training of specialists and instructors of anti-terrorist formations of all SCO member states is being discussed.¹⁹

Kazakhstan's legislative framework for combating terrorism has been significantly updated in recent years: penalties for terrorist activities have been tightened, and the conceptual framework and norms of legislative acts have been specified taking into account the law enforcement practice of other states. The adopted organizational and practical measures, based on new provisions in the legislation, made it possible to stop the illegal activities of members of the religious extremist organization Hizb ut-Tahrir and the radical religious association Tablighi Jamaat in a number of cities of the republic, ²⁰ to bring them to criminal responsibility, to condemn them for spreading the ideas of the so-called "militant Islam" and to expel them from countries of preachers from Egypt and Sudan. In addition, five people were detained in Kentau and Turkestan for distributing Hizb ut-Tahrir leaflets.²¹

THE BORDER IS NOT LOCKED?

The total length of the Kazakh-Russian land border, which is more than 6 thousand km, as well as the fact that a significant part of Russia's challenges and threats from Central Asia go through the border with Kazakhstan, make border cooperation between the two countries one of the key areas in ensuring security.

The reasons for the serious deterioration of the security situation on the Russian-Kazakh border were the disintegration of a strict system of internal administrative control within the territory of the former USSR, the maturation of new social problems, including the formation of criminal international groups, which over the past few years have managed to quite clearly lay down the channels of their cross-border activities. At the same time, when forming the border regime between the Kazakh and Russian sides in the 1990s, it was about limited measures that would allow in the future to introduce cross-border communication within the legal framework and create an administrative and legal basis for combating border violations.

Further growth in the scale of illegal cross-border activities in their most threatening forms (in particular, drug trafficking, illegal migration, smuggling of raw materials and some types of consumer goods) has led to a significant change in the attitude of both central structures and regional authorities of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation to the problem of border control. The Border Guard Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation is a particularly active supporter of taking the border under full control. At the same time, its leadership emphasizes that a strict border regime should not serve as an obstacle to the development of cross-border cooperation with Kazakhstan.²²

The current system of the Russian border service in the area of the Kazakh-Russian border was established in the period from 1998 to 2000. Key milestones were the transformation of the Regional Office of the Federal Border Service with a location in Chelyabinsk into ^{the South-Eastern Regional Office of the Federal Border Service of the Russian Federation and the formation of regional border units, which was completed mainly in 2000.23}

The Kazakh side has also started arranging the border. In March 2000, the first exercises of the border troops of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the years of independence were held, which also covered the territories of the regions adjacent to the Russian Federation.²⁴ In the early 2000s, work on the construction of new checkpoints increased dramatically.²⁵

At the same time, significant gaps remain in the legal framework: in most cases, border guards have the right to bring violators only to administrative responsibility, or to send them to border control points, which ultimately makes it difficult to search and punish violators.²⁶

Both Russia and Kazakhstan are members of the Eurasian Economic Community, which provides for the abolition of duties and other tariff regulation measures between the member countries of the Eurasian Economic Community. The relevant system of agreements and contracts leaves serious problems due to the lack of certainty of the status of products produced by third-country enterprises (in particular, in the mining, metallurgical and other industries of Northern Kazakhstan), as well as due to the widespread practice of "false transit", when the declared destination country does not coincide with the actual destination ²⁷. One of the main reasons for these and other difficulties is the relatively weak coordination of mechanisms of interaction between the administrative structures of both neighboring States and within them.

The transfer of the border service to the department of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation in the early 2000s allows achieving a high degree of coordination of forces and means in the implementation of the border security policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Considering the need for co-

Due to the lack of transparent regulation of traffic and other flows crossing the border, as well as the increasingly obvious cross-border nature of challenges to the security of border areas, the problem of ensuring border security cannot be considered as an exclusively internal matter of one of the parties, requiring close interaction between them.

Cross-border cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia is carried out in several areas, among which a special role is played by countering existing threats (crime, drug trafficking, illegal migration). In the fight against crime, emphasis is placed on the implementation of joint activities involving border and customs services, internal affairs and security agencies, and other structures. Such activities include operations "Border", "Channel", "Caravan-auto", "Mak", "Doping", "Rubezh","Trawl-intercept" ²⁸.Operation "Border", which is held annually in the border regions of the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan, is particularly noteworthy. This operation is a complex of measures, the priority goals of which are to identify and stop the channels of entry into illicit trafficking of narcotic drugs, weapons, ammunition and explosives, as well as to expose and eliminate organized criminal groups, undermining the economic basis of criminal business.²⁹

The results of the conducted special operations illustrate both the urgent need to strengthen the fight against cross-border and cross-border crime, and the growth of its scale. However, effective channels for continuous interaction between Russian and Kazakh border security agencies are not yet fully operational or partially operational in most cases. Thus, responsible representatives of the border and customs services of the Volgograd region admit that they have little information about the activities of Kazakhstani colleagues of a similar level. Similar situations occur in other sections of ^the border30. In our opinion, the reasons for this are, first of all, the weak operational and organizational training of the relevant services of the two states, which do not have the proper experience of working in the zone of "new" previously almost transparent and unguarded borders.

In order to increase the efficiency of coordination of the border services ' activities, the work of the border representatives of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan was established. ³¹ The first official meeting of these representatives was held on April 25, 2000. This institute is designed to solve border issues and resolve border incidents, and monitor the implementation of concluded agreements. This institution, as a real and effective structure, is, however,only in its infancy. ³²

BARRIERS TO DRUG TRAFFICKING

An important area of international cooperation between the state bodies of Kazakhstan and Russia is the fight against drug trafficking in the form of special operations simultaneously on the territory of several countries. Being one-time events, such events, however, bring a tangible effect. First of all, we are talking about the annual operation "Channel", which involves the special services, customs, border, law enforcement and anti-drug authorities of the CSTO member states.

In February 2006, employees of the Federal Drug Control Service of the Russian Federation found over 52 kg of heroin in the house of a resident of the Kurgan region bordering Kazakhstan. It was established that this shipment of drugs was delivered across the Russian-Kazakh border, bypassing the official checkpoints ³³. This fact has exposed one of the acute problems of the Kazakh-Russian border area - poor border infrastructure, insufficient security, and low efficiency of border checkpoints.

At the initiative of the CSTO executive secretariat, the International Coordination Council of Heads of Competent Authorities ^for Countering Illicit Drug Trafficking (CCOPN)was established in 200434.

As a result, for the first time, operational officers of the organization's member States working on drugs were able to come together to discuss and make decisions on key issues related to the fight against illicit drug trafficking.

Other countries are also joining programs to strengthen law enforcement agencies involved in combating cross-border drug trafficking. In recent years, the circle of CSOPN participants and observers has expanded. In 2006, representatives of eight countries-the United States, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Iran, Pakistan, and China - attended Operation Channel 2006 as observers. During this operation, 150 tons of precursors (raw materials) and 19 tons of drugs were detained.³⁵

Despite some success in countering drug trafficking in the region (including collective interstate efforts), the underlying causes of this problem remain virtually untouched. Law enforcement agencies that primarily counteract large drug mafia communities are ineffective in dealing with small-scale drug traffickers and transporters, whose activities account for a significant share of the total volume of drug trafficking.³⁶ In the context of the socio-economic crisis that many Central Asian communities have been experiencing for several years, drug trafficking is one of the few sources of livelihood for the general population. Therefore, it is impossible to deal with this threat solely by force.

When choosing the main direction of the drug control strategy, both Russia and Kazakhstan face a dilemma between focusing on forceful measures aimed at curbing drug trafficking, or reducing demand, which involves preventive work with real or potential consumers. Kazakhstan, which has limited resources to implement a large-scale military policy to curb drug trafficking (taking the border under full control, etc.), places more emphasis on prevention of drug trafficking.-

However, due to the lack of resources and a number of other factors, they are not yet able to reverse the situation. In Russia, a more pronounced emphasis is placed on enforcement measures, despite the fact that regional programs (including in the regions bordering Kazakhstan) to reduce demand are systematically underfunded; limited funding does not allow for the most effective measures in this direction, such as massive anti-drug advertising on television. ³⁷

PROBLEMS OF ILLEGAL MIGRATION

Illegal migration and related challenges and threats have consistently been on the agenda of Kazakh-Russian security cooperation over the past few years. In May-June 2006, the first joint operation was conducted within ten days to counteract illegal migration of third-country citizens to the CSTO countries, as well as through their territory to other regions. As a result of the special operations, more than 28 thousand people were brought to administrative responsibility for violating migration legislation, more than 1 thousand were deported, 57 people were expelled under escort, 139 criminal cases were initiated against foreigners from third countries for violations on the channels of entry and transit, almost half of them for organizing illegal migration. Moreover, the activities of a number of criminal transnational groups in the organization of human trafficking, the supply of weapons, explosives and drugs were suppressed, and new channels of illegal migration to our States were identified.³⁸

In addition to special operations to curb illegal migration, the parties are taking steps to streamline migration flows to their countries. Following the results of the CIS summit held in Dushanbe in October 2007, the CSTO member states decided to implement a coordinated migration policy. The Council of Heads of Government was instructed to "take a decision on behalf of the Council of Heads of State on the draft Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families"^.39

NOT JUST WITH A WHIP

Against the background of intensive and often productive cooperation between the law enforcement agencies of the countries in the fight against regional threats, the level of measures taken to prevent such crimes is extremely unsatisfactory. Meanwhile, the experience of foreign law enforcement agencies shows that preventive measures are the most effective, but at the same time complex and costly.

The most effective measures to prevent the spread of terrorism, extremism, criminalization and narcosis of society are comprehensive preventive measures with the participation of state bodies, the public, media representatives and religious authorities. Specialized analytical structures that are not part of the law enforcement system should play an important role in preventing these threats.

The mechanism of preventive means and methods consists, first of all, in "identifying, eliminating, localizing, neutralizing or minimizing the impact of negative factors (conflicts) that give rise to manifestations of terrorism, extremism, and other antisocial acts, as well as in eliminating concomitant and contributing to the implementation of criminal plans and intentions of individuals and "risk groups"⁴⁰.

Prevention of regional threats should be carried out at the pre-criminal stages of the development of negative processes, that is, at the stages when the motivation for illegal behavior is formed. At the same time, the main focus in this confrontation will be placed not on a set of forceful measures on the part of law enforcement agencies and special services, but on preventive and preventive, propaganda work of all state bodies to uncover the essence of various forms of crimes among the population.

Such problems are more or less inherent in both Kazakhstan and Russia. In this context, the structure of the national system of preventive measures proposed by one of the leading scientists of the Russian Federation in the field of combating terrorism, Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Council of the CIS Anti-Terrorist Center, Doctor of Law V. E. Petrishchev is of interest.

The researcher, using a criminological approach, came to the conclusion that when constructing a model of such a system, a three-level structure seems to be the most optimal. The largest and most powerful level of the system of preventive measures should be aimed at identifying and eliminating the main threats to health.,

the main causes and conditions for the reproduction of terrorism in the country, which include contradictions in the sphere of economy, politics, interethnic relations, and relations between the authorities and the people that have reached the level of conflict in the process of their aggravation.

First of all, it is the fight against poverty and unemployment through job creation, improving the level of social security of the population of Central Asian countries, combating corruption, and generally a policy aimed at improving the standard and quality of life of the broad masses. These steps are designed to narrow the social base of terrorist and drug mafia communities as much as possible.

An important element of the system of measures to prevent terrorism is the organization and implementation of explanatory and educational work with the population, which includes legal, ideological, international, and patriotic aspects. The success of this work will depend on the level of efficiency of using all available opportunities in the complex (the system of educational institutions, universal legal education, mass media, churches, etc.), and on the degree to which the ideology of the events held corresponds to the mental state of the people and public expectations.

At the " individual level "of the national system of terrorism prevention measures, the latter should be extremely targeted and targeted, since the" target " of preventive action itself is very local. In addition, the need for special precision and sensitivity in the implementation of preventive measures at the individual level is also dictated by the fact that they come into direct contact with the rights and freedoms of the individual, which in a democratic society cannot be violated without sufficient legal grounds."⁴¹

At the moment, Astana and Moscow still prefer agencies dealing with traditional aspects of security, do not encourage the decentralization of combating cross-border threats. Many regions (primarily the border regions) of both countries have neither the means nor the authority to deal with non-traditional threats such as terrorism, drug trafficking, cross-border crime and smuggling, and illegal migration.

On the one hand, such threats as terrorism, extremism, and the activities of drug mafia communities are directly related to the military aspect of the security of countries, and the use of military-police methods is necessary to combat their manifestations. On the other hand, the involvement of the population of the Central Asian countries themselves by terrorists and drug traffickers links this problem to a number of other aspects of national security - economic, social, and educational. Hence, there is an urgent need not only to combat the manifestations of terrorist threats, but also to prevent their occurrence, solve the problems that give rise to these threats, and take measures to prevent and neutralize the causes and conditions of the manifestation of terrorism.

¹ See for more details: Vainberg B. I. Etnografiya Turana v drevnosti [Ethnography of Turan in ancient times]. VII century BC-VIII century AD Moscow, 1999.

^{Panarin S. A.} 2 Political development of the Central Asian States in the light of geography and history of the region // Vestnik Evrazii, 2000, No. 1.

³ How Afghanistan "unites" Europe and Central Asia -www.sngnews.ru. 12.12.2007.

⁴ Cit. by: Panarin S. A. Edict. op.

^{Dundich A. S.} 5 Post-Soviet Central Asia: Regional Potential of Leadership and Counter-leadership / / V vostokovedcheskie chteniya pamyati S. G. Livshitsa. Proceedings of the V International Scientific Conference. Barnaul, 2004, p. 149.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Key indicators of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Almaty, 2005, p. 6.

⁸ Website of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan -www.mod.kz. 11.03.2007. ⁹ Sidorov O. Armed Forces of Kazakhstan-military construction continues - www.centrasia.ru. 13.12.2007.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Kazakhstan will buy the latest weapons from Russia-www.rian.ru/defense safety. 14.09.2007.

^{Vladimir Putin: CSTO} countries will be able to buy weapons at domestic prices - www.rian.ru/politics/cis. 10.10.2007.

¹³ Ibid., pp. 154-155.

¹⁴ August 4 the first stage of joint military exercises of the CSTO countries will begin in Kazakhstan - www.zakon.kz. 14.09.2007.

¹⁵ Official website of the CIS - www.cis.minsk. 22.07.2007.

¹⁶ Kazakhstan: selected news - www.news.central.kz. 4.10.2007.

¹⁷ Website about regional and national security issues - www.antiterror.kz. 21.07.2007.

¹⁸ Official website of the CIS.., 17.09.2007.

¹⁹ Terrorists collected in one file - www.rg.ru. 16.09.2007.

²⁰ A movement that emerged within the Deobandi movement in Islam, characterized from the very beginning by radicalism, intolerance of any other form of religion, exclusion of women from public life, and fanatical proselytism-www.studies.agentura.ru, 11.12.2007.

²¹ Legal basis for combating terrorism in the Republic of Kazakhstan-www. nomad.su. 12.03.07.

²² Transparent borders. Security and cross-border cooperation in the zone of new border territories of Russia: Collective monograph / Under the editorship of L. B. Vardomsky and SV. Volgograd: Nauchno-obrazovatel'nyi forum po mezhdunarodnykh otnosheniyam [Scientific and Educational Forum on International Relations], 2002, p. 411.

²³ Ibid., p. 413.

²⁴ News of the Border Service of the Republic of Kazakhstan - www.zakon.kz/our/news. 12.08.2007.

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ Transparent borders.., p. 417.

²⁷ Ibid.

²⁸ Olekh G. L. Problemy ustroystviya rossiiskoi-kazakhstanskoi granitsy: sibirskiy regional'nyi srez [Problems of building the Russian-Kazakh border: Siberian regional section]. Sibirskaya zaimka, 2002, No. 4, p.62.

²⁹ Ibid.

³⁰ Transparent borders.., p. 445.

³¹ Ibid.

³² Ibid., p. 446.

³³ Since the beginning of 2007 the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia has seized more than 400 kg of heroin - www.narkotiki.ru. 7.10.2007.

^{Tsyganok A.} 34 It's not too late to suppress drug aggression yet. Novoe voennoe obozrenie [New Military Review]. Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 14.04.2006.

³⁵ On the results of the 2nd stage of the international operational and preventive operation "Canal-2006" - www.narkotiki.ru. 10.2007.

³⁶ Narcotization of society: status, problems, and experience of counteraction. Almaty, 2004, p. 48.

³⁷ Ibid., p. 59.

³⁸ CSTO member states conducted a joint operation to counter illegal migration - www.regions.ru/news. 13.09.2007.

³⁹ Summary of the CIS Summit in Dushanbe - www.narod-info.ru/news. 10.10.2007.

^{Postol'nik V.} 40 Topicality of preventive measures in the fight against terrorism / / Professional, 30.07.2001, N 3, p. 26.

^{Petrishchev V. E.} 41 Problems of creating a nationwide system of measures for the prevention of terrorism. Notes on Terrorism, Moscow, 2001, pp. 265-266.